118 Slashed Constructions (English)

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Slashed Constructions

This is one of the easier concepts to understand in English grammar. The purpose of a slashed construction is to provide more than one term that fits within the context of the surrounding elements in a sentence. It simply allows for a sentence to have two alternate interpretations, one for each version that includes one of the two words provided.

So instead of writing two sentences that only differ by a single conjunction...

It is green or purple.

It is green and purple.

We use a slash...

It is green and/or purple.

Definition

A Slashed Construction is the combination of terms by way of a slash.

Alternative

The pipe delimiter ("|") may be substituted for the forward slash ("/") when creating a slashed construction. P!apoose is a trademark of Chen Dushek

125 Using Gerunds (English)

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Using Gerunds

A gerund is a verb ending in "ing." A gerund is itself also a verb, but may be used infrequently as a noun; such as, playing in the sun makes me tired. In this example, playing is the subject of the example independent clause, and makes is the verb. It's important to note that as a verb, gerunds introduce a parenthetic clause to the sentence, but as a noun they do not. They may be followed by a prepositional phrase (such as, in the sun in the previous example) when used as a noun, but rarely if ever are they followed by a parenthetic expression when used as a noun.

Uses

Gerunds provide a very valuable function that would otherwise cause confusion. Gerunds provide a sentence with the action of an object. That is to say, gerunds introduce the clause that describes what an object of the sentence is doing.
When a writer includes a gerund mid-sentence, it is almost always non-restrictive and therefore preceded by a comma.
For example, I type this, thinking it is easy to grasp.
In this example sentence, the verb think is turned into a gerund, so the rest of the sentence after the comma does not restrict who is thinking—it’s still just me—but it does add a description of what happened while I was typing; therefore, it is non-restrictive .

Other Uses

Many writers who delve into the world of instructions and processes will find an established industry standard of titles beginning with gerunds, such as Using Gerunds above.
The reason is that the reader can quickly surmise what value the text they are about to read will provide.

103 Commas (English)

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Understanding Commas

Commas are the most widely utilized and under-appreciated form of punctuation in the English language. That means they are used the most and appreciated the least. More importantly, they are less understood than they should be. Understanding proper comma usage can be distilled into an art form when considering some of the finer points of the grammar rules regarding comma usage.
Proper comma use can save money in marketing expenses, prevent ambiguity that could have a legal or financial impact, and ensure transcripts are interpreted as intended. However, proper comma usage alone is meaningless unless there is proper understanding and interpretation of that usage.
As overlooked as commas may be in modern day, they still control the meaning of a sentence and the interpretation of that meaning. As such, it is imperative that the correct interpretation is derived with the proper understanding of smartly assigned commas in a sentence. That is to say, nothing can be more important than knowing and understanding proper comma usage grammar rules for healthy communications.

Commas and Independent Clauses

A comma can separate two independent clauses when the comma is followed by a conjunction (for example, but, and, or). We know that an independent clause is composed of a subject and a predicate. Two subjects, each with their own predicate, are separated by a comma if there is a conjunction present, such as and or but. If the comma is not followed by a conjunction, then a semicolon is used to separate the two independent clauses. In rare cases, a colon can be used to separate two independent clauses provided the first introduces the latter. In most cases, a comma and a conjunction are the most common separators of independent clauses aside from periods.
When one of the clauses is not independent, then that clause is referred to as a restrictive clause. All independent clauses are non-restrictive clauses. For example, Papoose is barking and is a dog, is an independent clause followed by the dependent clause, or restrictive clause, or less popularly restrictive parenthetic expression, of the declaration of Papoose's species. If a subject would be included in the latter half, clarifying that it is Papoose that is a dog, then a comma would be appropriate before the conjunction. To rephrase, there is only one subject followed by two predicates, so no comma is used.

Commas and Lists

Commas separate list items. These commas are referred to as series commas. The last comma in a list, typically preceding the conjunction, is referred to as a Series comma, Serial comma, or Oxford comma.
A comma is used to separate items in a list regardless of whether the list is provided inline or external, as is the case with a bulleted list. Commas can be omitted in external lists provided the items are not independent clauses, do not comprise a list of items with a common theme when grouped together aside from the introductory sentence that binds them, nor when other punctuation is used. List items may or may not include an Oxford comma (syn: serial comma, series comma) depending on the medium in which the sentence is being delivered.
For example, a list of beneficiaries in a will shall not exclude an Oxford comma because the conjunction without the serial comma could imply the last two beneficiaries in the list are grouped as one entity among the other listed members. On the contrary, a list of marketing slogans on a piece of collateral would spare the extra comma because it doesn't add value to proper interpretation of which items are included in the list. In advertising jargon, the common term for the act of not including the serial comma is known as 'sparing the ink' or, more familiarly, 'spare the ink.'

Hard Commas

Hard commas are used to separate items in a list that within themselves contain commas. Often, semicolons are deployed to act as hard commas, but replacing a hard comma with a semicolon is not a formal rule for lists containing items that themselves contain commas. For example, I have three red, green, and blue pens, four small, medium, and large erasers, and ten short, long, and extra-long highlighters. That same sentence can be written as: I have three red, green, and blue pens; four small, medium, and large erasers; and ten short, long, and extra-long highlighters. Either sentence can be said to be following proper rules; however, the example with semicolons as hard commas makes it easier to read the sentence and identify the breaking points in the main list.

Commas and Appositives

Commas separate appositives to set them off as parenthetic expressions when using closed-form style or when the appositive is more than a word or two long. For example, I Papoose might say, "I, Papoose the writer, am defining." The first appositive, Papoose, which follows I includes the use of open form, and the second appositive, Papoose the writer, includes the closed form style. Many recent literary materials show preference for open-form comma style, but only when adding the commas does not add or remove value to or from the rest of the sentence.

Commas and Parenthetics

Parenthetic clauses, or parenthetic expressions, are any non-restrictive clauses that can be easily removed from the sentence without changing its central meaning. That is to say, a parenthetic clause is separated on both sides by a comma if it can safely be removed and the meaning of the sentence stays the same. A parenthetic expression may add value to the paragraph or section in which it is included, but specifically within the sentence, it does not change the meaning of the main clause.
For example, the cat, a furry green ball of excitement, is ready to play with a mouse. In this example, the sentence can easily be reduced to: the cat is ready to play with a mouse, and the meaning stays the same. The parenthetic expression that can be removed in that example is also an appositive because it is directly modifying the noun that precedes it.

Commas and Numbers

A comma separates every hundredth numeral in a number. When you write one million in a sentence, the only commas are inside the number provided it is not the beginning or end of a parenthetic expression. For example, The 1,000,000 customers all bought the same style. Note: numbers greater than or including ten should be spelled out, regardless of usage. Numbers in date format are exceptions to this rule.

Commas and Memos

A comma is used when following the name of the recipient when addressing the recipient in a letter. A common exception is to use the colon after the recipient's name or title (or role), provided what follows is not an informal message nor personal or private in nature.
A comma is used when introducing your signature at the end of a letter, email, or impersonal note. A common exception is to remove the comma and insert a hyphen directly preceding the signature, whether if all on the same line or the hyphen and signature are broken onto the next line.

Commas and Quotes

A comma is used when introducing quoted words. This commonly known style is familiar in fiction stories that contain dialogue. Other uses include parenthetic expressions that are set off either by only two commas before and after and by single or double quotes, but commas are omitted when the parenthetic expression is set off by an en-dash, em-dash, hyphen, parentheses, brackets, curly braces or one of the styles of slashes.

Commas and Adverbs

Commas follow an adverb or adverbial phrase when followed by an independent clause. When the adverb is a single word and followed by a dependent clause, the comma is omitted. When a single-word adverb is placed between the words of a subject of an independent clause, then common style is to omit the commas surrounding the adverb per the open form rules established for appositives and parenthetic expressions, allowing for commas to be used if the sentence dictates a pause when being read.
In the rare cases when the adverb or adverbial phrase is in the predicate of an independent clause or in a dependent clause, it follows the rules of closed-form style for commas.
In some rare cases, such as when preceded by an independent clause that is separated by a semicolon, a comma is used regardless of what follows. This exception is a violation of the general rule of adverbial phrases or adverbs, but is still employed on rare occasions.

Commas and Double Words

Current best practices are to separate the occurrence of a double word with a comma. The most common example is, that that is, and that that isn't. Proper grammar usage per the currently accepted standards is to separate each occurrence of a double word with a comma; however, Papoose asks this one simple question: why not recast the sentence?
In the above text, Papoose provided an example where her will was tempted to double itself, but another synonym was found to replace the second occurrence of her will and avoid an unnecessary grammatical exception, because separating the double use of a word is not a task suitable for commas. Commas are intended for other purposes. The same word should not occur twice consecutively in any sentence under any circumstance. A seemingly unavoidable doubling of a word dictates the need for a thesaurus and defines the necessity of a style guide.

112 Colons (English)

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Understanding Colons

A colon is a punctuation mark used to introduce one item or items that follows the colon to an item or items that precedes the colon. a colon is only used in the middle of a sentence or at the end of an independent or dependent clause, providing that something follows the colon after the independent or dependemt clause.

Colons Introducing Clauses

A colon can separate an independent clause from a dependent clause, such as when introducing a list or group of items.
In rare cases, a colon can separate two independent clauses, such as when one sentence introduces another sentence.
A colon can introduce a dependent clause or list of items from an independent or dependent clause that precedes it.
A colon can introduce a single object or group of objects in a sentence or sentence fragment. For example, Name: Papoose

Colons in List Items

A colon can be used to introduce inline list items or external list items. When introducing a list, an introductory sentence, phrase, or word must precede the colon, and at least one item must follow the colon.

Colons in Inline List Items

A colon can be used to introduce an inline list of items. Inline lists must be separated by either commas or semicolons when used as hard commas.
For example, this is a list of letters: a, b, and c.
This example is referred to as an inline list of items because the list is set within the sentence as opposed to externally.
Inline lists must have a minimum of three items listed in order to be separated by commas or semicolons.
In some instances, such as in mathematics, list items can be set off in quotes or parentheses in lieu of using a semicolons as hard commas.
For example, the list: a, b; c, d; and e, f can be written as ("a, b"), (c, d), and "e , f"

Colons in External List Items

A colon can be used to separate external list items from the sentence, phrase, or word that introduces them. When introducing an external list of items, each item can be set off with some sort of symbol, such as a bullet point. Best practices are to keep using the same symbol at equivalent indents of the list and any sublists within the list.
External lists are useful for when the list being introduced is extensive, has more than one sublist, or can be confusing or ambiguous if written inline.
When writing items in an external list, best practices are to end each list item with a comma or semicolon, use a coordinating conjunction in the penultimate list item, and end the list with a period; however, one of the benefits of external lists is that the comma or semicolon can be omitted on each line of the list without reducing the value or readability of the sentence.

Colons For Addressing People in Memos

Colons can be used instead commas when addressing an entity in a letter or memo. Common examples are office memos addressed to staff members as shown in the following example:
All staff:
Colons can be used to set off a selected option from a category; for example, Attention: All Staff

Using Double Colons

Two colons next to each other between two terms signals that the object to the right of the double colons is a subcategory of the item to the left of them.
For example:
Grammar :: Punctuation :: Colons

119 Hyphens (English)

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Understanding Hyphens

A hyphen is used to connect either two syllables of two different words or a syllable (or group of syllables) to a word. The hyphen is intended for the newly-created term to be read as a single word, such as the noun anti-hero, the adjective near-sighted, or the recently coined term e-mail.
Typically, newly coined compound terms can drop the hyphen after some time, such as email from e-mail, which was originally the spelling, or misled, which was once mis-led. However, until two words are officially inducted as a new single compound word, the use of the hyphen can replace the use of square quotes of a term, which is customary to reflect the closer relationship those two (or more) words have to each other than the other words in the sentence, such as when quoting a uncommon use of a word or phrase.
When an expression has exhausted the single quote treatment ad nauseam, or when two words aren't normally connected aside from one modifying the other but common standards fail to dictate a more intimate relationship between the two words that should be expressed to avoid ambiguity or misinterpretation, then connecting the two words with a hyphen is the next logic step. Eventually, significant popularity of a hyphenated term leads to the two words united into a single compound word, which the most significant example of which would be the short period of time in which electronic mail transformed to e-mail and then soon after email. Typically, the process of joining two words to eventually be accepted as a new compound word happens over a period of multiple decades or even centuries.

Understanding En dashes

An en dash is used to introduce definitions, introduce lists, between dates, between numbers, and to signify a range of some group of object, such as 1 – 10. An en dash differs from a hyphen as it is slightly longer and treated with spaces on either side, whereas a hyphen is closed spacing.

Understanding Em dashes

An em dash is the length of two en dashes—it signals a break in thought or focus to another, different topic loosely related to the sentence in which it is placed. An em dash can separate any combination of independent and dependent clauses, because it signals a break from the current topic to introduce a tangent or side note.

140 Abbreviations & Acronyms (English)

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Understanding Abbreviations

An abbreviation is a shortening of a word for the sake of brevity; hence the word abbreviation. For example, ex. is a common abbreviation for the word example. Notice that the next word in the sentence is not capitalized after the period following an abbreviation.
Abbreviations are typically the first syllable of a long word, but short words can be abbreviated as well. In some cases, an abbreviation can include the second or even less frequently third syllable of a word. Generally speaking, however, since the purpose of an abbreviation is to increase the brevity of a word, phrase, or sentence, then two syllables of an abbreviated word is a standard maximum amount.
Many abbreviations include an apostrophe within them to help distinguish the abbreviation more easily or just how the abbreviation has become commonly written; for example, gov't, which is also a good example of how some abbreviations drop the apostrophe as they become more popular, such as govt or gov.
Some common abbreviations are:
Exec,
Doc,
Dr,
Mrs,and
Dept.

Understanding Acronyms

An acronym is a word comprised of the first letter of each word in a phrase or sentence; for example, SCUBA is an acronym for Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus. To be clear, an acronym is a word in which each letter of that word stands for the first letter of another word, and when those words are combined in the acronym, they, along with the acronym itself in some cases, provide a description, summary, or synonym to a certain item or idea.
Commonly used acronyms tend to drop the period marks. So now, the acronym S.C.U.B.A. is better known as simply scuba.
Two other common acronyms include NASA and SWAT.

Inventing Acronyms

Creating an acronym can be a fun and entertaining way to pass the time, but to truly capture all the benefits of a well-formed acronym can be seen as an art form if the systematic approach to designing them is unknown.
First, the acronym requires a subject that it will represent, describe, or otherwise correlate to.
In this example, let's say we're opening a new store that sells women's clothing. The owner wants his business to stand out among the competition, so he hires you to invent an acronym for the business.
The first step is to come up with an easily interchangeable word that somehow relates, no matter how abstractly, to the product or service. By interchangeable, I am referring to a word where you can easily change a letter or two and still have a valid term.
To begin, I choose a word at random; doesn't matter that much, because it will most likely be changed and forgotten in a few moments. I choose the word Price because it has letters that each can be the beginning of a wide assortment of words related to women's shopping business and it is somewhat related to the business model of selling those items, so tying the acronym to an advertising campaign will be less cumbersome or arduous.
Next, I begin playing with words that begin with each letter in the acronym and are loosely related to any aspect of women, shopping, business, or anything remotely relative to the concept, and then list them out. Gerunds are especially useful for joining otherwise unrelated terms in an acronym.
P - price, pretty, petite, purchase, prize, partial, party, pants, pleasing, plenty, payment, plaza, place, placing, pricing, paving, plus, patience, paying, posh, princess, prepare, palace, promote,
R - ready, really, ravishing, relaxed, right, risk, reward, rate, rave, real, repeat, retail, return, realize, relief, running, ruling, ramp, railway, raking, resist, rent, related, revenue, racing, rolling, rush
I - invest, interest, I, intelligent, impossible, integrity, innocence, impurity, in-house, inclined, idea, in, is, isn't, impart, impose, immune, in sync, implies, if, instruct, indebted, ivory, ink, ignore, indicate, increase, irrational, install, in style, in vogue, inches, interior, inline, incorporate, in-house
C - corporate, cut, cost, clever, creative, custom, core, cookie, coupon, collect, can, candid, crave, contact, crazy, clear, combine, color, capture, connect, class, clean, compare, corner, choreograph, clothing, customer, contain, challenge, change, channel, complete
E - easy, excellent, even, escalate, enough, event, express, energy, empty, electric, exchange, exit, empire, estimate, embrace, enchant, entire, extend, expert, entertainment, expensive, expanded, extra, exact, entrance, elegance, emotions, endless, establishment, excite
The lists don't have to be inclusive of every possible word, since the chances are that the acronym itself will probably change.
Begin piecing words together from two lists next to each other that seem the most promising. Personally, I see potential in clothing express or complete elegance.
Working backwards, we need a word starting with the letter I that works with one of those two starter phrases.
To keep it simple, let's pick the word in because it's a good connector in the middle of an acronym.
A little more word mixing gives us: Perfecting Retail In Clothing Elegance
I personally would keep playing with the words to find that perfect blend of words that unites the synergies between all the possible variables involved, but in only ten minutes or so, we managed to come up with at least one possible acronym for PRICE, that could work for a new women's clothing store.

Understanding Latin Abbreviations

Latin abbreviations are archaic and should be avoided in the English language. However, there are times when using a Latin abbreviation will be preferred over its English counterpart. Here are the most common three:
etc. - and so on
et. al. - and company
e.g. - for example
Using Latin in a sentence is a reference to another language, which is something to keep in mind. In English writing, there has been a steady movement towards the preference for translating one language into English and vice versa. So for example, instead of introducing an example with e.g., you might personally prefer writing out for example.

110 Periods (English)

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Understanding Periods

A period ends a sentence. Every complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with either a period, question mark, or exclamation point. When a period ends a sentence, it is neither a question nor an exclamation. It is simply a statement.

Periods and Independent Clauses

A Period separates two complete independent clauses. A period cannot separate an independent clause from a dependent clause. Likewise, a period cannot separate an independent clause from a restrictive or non-restrictive clause, provided the non-restrictive clause is not an independent clause, which should be obvious. To be clear, a period can never separate a dependent clause from an independent clause.

Other Uses of Periods

A period can be used following each letter of an acronym. In such cases, that would be because the word was not clearly an acronym without the periods. For example, scuba was first written as S.C.U.B.A.
A period can be placed at the end of an abbreviation, such as dept. or Mrs.
In dialogue or monologue. A period can be used to signify that each letter of a word be read independently.
A period acts as a decimal point in numbers. Integers are the numbers written without periods. A floating point decimal is the mathematical nomenclature of a number with a decimal point.
A period can be used in a series of three periods to symbolize an ellipsis, which is how omitted words are signified.

Notes on Periods

When an abbreviation ends a sentence, only one period is used. However, when within a sentence, an abbreviation is not followed by a capital letter nor a comma despite that it ends with a period; e.g. this Latin abbreviation is followed by lower-case this.
A period is used in computers to separate the different parts of a web address, email address, or file name.
There is never a case when two periods should be next to each other except in an ellipsis or as leaders, such as in a table of contents.
A period can be used to separate and identify parent-child relationships between two or more words. For example, index.two implies the second unit of an index.

109 Because Commas (English)

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Understanding Because Commas

Let’s start with an example before adding any guidelines.
Examples:
I am not happy because it’s Friday.
I am happy, because it’s Friday.
So which sentence is correct?
The answer depends on what you intended to convey in your sentence.
So the question is:

What was intended?

In order to match what was intended with the sentence offering the same results, we have to first understand how the comma is used to remove restrictions.
As a general rule of thumb:

The use of a comma is going to imply non-restrictive treatment.

Let’s use a simpler example for this point.
The cat that is white.
The cat, which is white.
The cat that is white is a restrictive sentence.
What that means is that there are a number of cats and if I don’t restrict my description, then nobody will know which of the cats I was referring to.
Therefore, we add the one ‘that is white' to restrict the subject of the sentence to refer only to the one cat that is white.

The cat, which is white is a sentence that does not need to be restricted. We already know the subject of the sentence is a specific cat and there is no confusion or ambiguity regarding which of the group of cats is the subject that applies to this sentence. In fact, it is already implied in this sentence that there is only one cat to begin with, so the audience doesn't need to restrict the subject any further.

Exceptions to Because Commas

Now let's apply what we've learned to the first set of example sentences.
The first sentence: I am not happy because it’s Friday restricts the subject to mean that I am in fact happy, but not because it is Friday.

Once again, though the subject reads: I am not happy, there is an exception that occurs when we add because without preceding it with a comma.
I have restricted my happiness by excluding the modifier (a modifier is what comes after the comma that does the restricting, such as the color white for the previous feline example.)


If you understood that explanation on restricting a subject of a sentence, then you have just learned a New Rule in English Grammar that clarifies a currently ambiguous interpretation of existing grammar best practices for a comma to precede the word because.

Comma Practice Before Because

So how about this example:

I am not happy because it is Monday.

This should be easy now.
Answer: This example explains that I am happy, but not because it is Monday.

Rules for Because Commas

The existing rule for comma usage before the word because in a sentence is as follows:

When the subject is affirmative (without ‘not’), then the comma shifts the emphasis between the clauses of the sentence.

Let's examine some examples and clarify this grammar guideline.
I am happy because it’ Friday. This sentence emphasizes the cause (because it’s Friday) over the subject.
I am happy, because it’s Friday. The insertion of the non-restrictive comma draws the emphasis of the sentence to my happiness. I agree with these two interpretations on a high level, but on a granular level, they leave too much room for ambiguous misinterpretation.

This slight departure of restrictive clauses when because is involved for both negative and positive statements is a rare exception for comma styles.
(Note: the New Rule is not an exception nor does it require one.) Remember that non-restrictive means the modifier (the comma) will be followed by additional information that doesn't restrict the subject.

There is no reason why this rule shouldn't stand true for the word because whether if used as a subordinating conjunction or a compound preposition, such as when because of is paired up.
With the exception already detailed above of when the subject is negative (contains not), the comma before the word because causes the clause that follows to be non-restrictive; whereas without the comma, the expression that follows is restrictive.

Summary of Because Commas

When in doubt:

• A comma never precedes ‘that.’
• The word ‘because’ has multiple meanings depending on the restrictive clause and whether the subject is negative or positive.
• When in doubt, ask the question: Can I complete the sentence without the phrase?
  If yes, then comma and non-restrictive, but if not, then no comma and restrictive.

Final Note on Because Commas

The concept of open form versus closed form may be relevant to this topic. Gains traction among the popular style guides.
Closed form refers to the old fashioned, strict adherence to the rules of comma usage, whereas open form refers to the reduction of implied commas, such as with brief appositives and the seemingly ineffectual shift in emphasis with affirmative because statements.
Removing commas that do not add value may be the direction that styles rules are inching towards, but most scholars would argue the essential value of the serial comma, though its use continues to stir debate among various career paths.

120 Double Punctuation (English)

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Understanding Double Punctuation

Double punctuation should be avoided if possible, but in some cases are necessary. A period or comma always go inside a quotation mark, so that is an example of double punctuation, a period followed by a quote mark.
When using Latin abbreviations; e.g., mid-sentence, a comma follows the Latin text if a non-restrictive expression follows; otherwise, it ends with a period and the sentence continues on without any additional punctuation nor without any capitalization following that period.
When a term is placed inside of quotes that are inside parentheses, then the author is introducing an abbreviation, acronym, or nickname of the noun directly preceding it. The same punctuation can never follow itself a duplicate instance; for example, two commas can never follow each other; they must always be surrounding some form of text, and two periods can never follow each other; an ellipsis is three periods.
Same applies to any other punctuation mark with one exception: parentheses, brackets, or curly braces. Parentheses may be double nested inside each other. In computer help manuals circa 1970s, double colons were used to separate subjects of nested help manual pages.

116 Quotes (English)

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Understanding Quotes

Quotes are generally used to signify spoken words in writing. There are double quotes and single quotes, each with their own useful purposes.

Using Double Quotes

Place double quotes around text that a character speaks to another character or object in the written material.
Note: Text a character speaks to the audience or to themselves is generally treated with italics, though sometimes in single quotes as well, but less often.

Using Single Quotes

Also known as 'Scare quotes,' place single quotes around a word or phrase to draw special attention to it.
Single quotes can also be used for the alternate title of a person or object; for example, Jim 'the mechanic' broke another gearbox. This example shows how single implies the sarcasm of Jim not being a mechanic, which is confirmed by the predicate where the reason for the sarcasm is provided: because he broke another gearbox.
See Quotes Exception for more information.

106 Non-restrictive Clauses (English)

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Understanding Restrictive Versus Non-Restrictive Clauses

Restrictive clauses and non-restrictive clauses are generally known by the 'that versus which' question we ask ourselves when determining when to use a comma before placing a relative pronoun in a sentence. As a general rule of thumb, a comma usually precedes 'which' and no comma before the word 'that.'
Sometimes though, it helps to understand the finer points of the grammar rules governing this confusing comma usage. 'That' is the word corresponding to a restrictive clause, and 'which' is the word corresponding to a non-restrictive clause. When 'that' is used in a sentence, the restrictive clause that follows is also known as a subordinate clause or a dependent clause.
Perhaps it helps to remember that commas are used to separate independent things, such as items in a grocery list or two sentences joined by the conjunction 'and.' Therefore, the restrictive clause ('that') does not get a comma because there is a dependency and the two objects being discussed are not independent of each other. In other words, a restrictive clause restricts, or limits, the subject of the sentence to only include the subcategory, which is provided after the relative pronoun.
For example, only cats that are orange" is restrictive because there are many cats, but the sentence is about to discuss only the ones that are orange. In the sentence: "the cats, which are orange," the relative pronoun 'which'is used because there are only orange cats, so no further definition, or restriction, is needed to identify the subject of what is about to be discussed.

For more information see Restrictive Clauses.

116 Quotes Exceptions (English)

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Quotes Exceptions

A semicolon and question mark signal the end of a sentence if followed by a capitalized word; for example, when quoting speech, the spoken words may end with a question mark or exclamation point, but the sentence continues on without any unnecessary capitalization of the following word.
For example:
"Am I?" she asked.
The word 'she' is not capitalized because it is not the start of a new sentence.

See Capitalization or Quotes for more information.

100 Capitalization (English)

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Capitalization

Capitalization is a standard grammatical practice throughout al of the english language uses. A capital letter of a word can symbolize various grammatical implications. Capitalization rules are generally the same throughout all the various style guides in the English language.

Capitalizing words

The first word of every sentence must begin with a capital letter. When encountering an exception to this rule, such as beginning a sentence with the word 'iPhone,' consider recasting the sentence so that it begins with a different word that can be capitalized--such as 'The iPhone'--to prevent any exceptions from occurring. See Quotes Exception.
As long as the first letter of a sentence is capitalized, there are no other steadfast rules for what can and cannot be capitalized in that sentence. However, aside from starting a sentence, capitalization is used to set off or draw attention to a specific word or phrase, so as a general rule, capitalization should be limited to only what is essentially needed to be capitalized, such as proper nouns.

Proper Nouns

The first letter of each word in a person's name is capitalized without exception. Except for this exception: The first letter of each word in a place or proper noun is capitalized unless it is a preposition, such as 'of,' regardless of chosen languages. In some exceptions, the prepositions within proper names are capitalized as well.
A proper noun is any person, place, or object that has a unique name to identify it, such as the city of New York or New York City.

Articles

An article is a word that introduces a noun or pronoun, such as: a, an, and the.
When introducing a proper noun, the article can be capitalized if it is part of the proper noun, such as the case of the title of a book; otherwise, it is only capitalized if at the start of the sentence.

Headlines

Headline capitalization is a term that was coined for the treatment of headlines of newspaper articles where the first letter of each word was capitalized to set the line off as the headline and not the first sentence of the article itself.
When providing a byline after a headline, the word by is not capitalized.

Camel Case

Camel case capitalization became popular among computer programmers to save time from having to place underscores between words in file names. Rather than using an underscore to represent spaces between words where spaces were not permitted, specifically in file names, and still ensure file names were easy to read, programmers would capitalize the first letter of each word in the file name and remove the underscores so there were no representations of spaces in the names.
For example, my_file_name.doc would be written as follows in camel case: MyFileName.doc.
In that example, MyFileName is using camel case capitalization.

101 Sentence Basics (English)

Home >> Grammar Style Guide >> Sentence Basics

Understanding Sentence Structure

A Sentence is an Independent Clause; for example, "I am Papoose." A sentence must begin with a capital letter, with few exceptions and must end with some form of punctuation; typically, a period.
An Independent Clause is comprised of a subject ("I") and a predicate ("Am Papoose"). An independent clause can stand alone as a full sentence.
A Dependent Clause is only a predicate, which includes the verb. Dependent clauses are sentences without subjects.
A verb is the action word of a sentence, such as write or run or swim. Gerund verbs are exceptions to this guideline.
A Dependent Clause is always connected to an Independent Clause because a dependent clause is missing a subject and therefore cannot stand alone.
The Subject and Predicate are the two parts of every sentence. That is to say, a sentence must contain both a subject and a predicate; no exceptions. If a clause is missing a subject, it is dependent. If a subject is missing a predicate, then it's just a word or phrase.

Open and Closed Forms

Open and Closed Forms

The concept of the open form and closed form relates to the principles of nonrestrictive clauses and is one of the few execeptions in English (US) grammar to those rules on clauses.

The value of this new rule--however dated it may seem--is that it allows sentences to 'spare the ink' so to speak when referring to such grammatical elements such as appositives.

The benefits of single word or otherwise short-worded appositives, for example, is that the meaning of the sentence is not lost or changed when removing the commas dictated by the rules of nonrestrictive clauses.

Nonrestrictive clauses call for a comma before the relative pronoun preceded by the subject or other sentence fragment preceding it. That brings us to the exception involving the open and closed form rules of grammar

Open Form

The concept of open form is quite simple and best understood by example. Though an appositive typically does not provide additional identifying information that restricts the subject it modifies; it still may avoid being enclosed by commas since the meaning of the sentence remains the same despite the exception to the most fundamental rule of grammar.

In other examples, following the same principle of the meaning not being lost, commas maybe omitted for fragments modifiying another.

With sufficient agreement among scholars, this exception has grown to earn its own definition, and as such, its opposite by virtue of necessity.

Closed Form

In simple terms, Closed Form is a reference to the strict adherence to the nonrestrictive rule, which insists on inserting commas for all clauses of a nonessential nature.

In other words, regardless of any nonambiguity, commas are always used for any sentence fragments that can safely be removed while the sentence remains true.

Phonetic Palindromic Poem Creator

Build your own poem by selecting from the options presented after each previous choice you select. No matter what you pick, the result is always a poem probably maybe...Refresh the page to start again!! The possibilities are endless!! Warning: possibilities are not endless.

(Select from the options below and your poem will appear directly below)
 

Pesticide

Pets at side

Approve in nays

A proven ace

Hazardous stakes

Has arduous takes

Inn door could seal

And orchids heal

Severities

Say varieties

Drives home

Derives some

Redeem urgency

Read emergency

Apple again

A pelican

Foreign sick

forensic

justice hall

Just as all

Listens

Lessons

Collapse

Coal lapse

The end

Refresh the page to try again

POEM APPEARS BELOW

 
     
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Tao Healing 101

 Administering Healing Energy

When providing a subject with healing energy, it is important to remember that good thoughts can be just as preventative as bad thoughts. Obviously, such a claim begs the question: Why?, but there is no short answer for that. The question then shifts over to How? Luckily for me, that is an easy answer. 

First, a provider must have the ability to clear the mind of any thoughts. It’s especially important not to allow any self-serving moments to spring up, as even the most noble of efforts is ultimately self serving. Consider for example a famous hero from the distant past. The idea of being written into history factored into their decisions. It always does. Somehow in some way, even the most benign of intentions have some relation to the self. 

Consider this, if you were offered the chance to get every person on the planet into heaven would you take it? What if the cost of them all entering into heaven was of yourself remaining in hell alone forever? Now, would you? Of course not—nobody would. The idea is preposterous. 

However, it’s still tempting, isn’t it? What if nobody could ever know you existed nor be able to ever rescue you. You’d be stuck there forever in constantly increasing pain and forgotten. 

A second in hell is a long time. Now, I’ve seen some suffering in my day, but hell is another playing field altogether. Enter the concept of pharmacy: remove the pain. 

Pain comes in all shapes and sizes, from childhood fears to nightmares to broken bones. All pain is equal in effect. 

The effect of pain is hate. So, to find that moment of zen inside of yourself, the pain must be released with zero external impact. Any negativity shared with the universe is returned tenfold and hence prevents zen mind. The question then is: what is zen mind. 

The beginner is learning. The seasoned professionals are limited. The beginner seeks to gain intelligence, knowledge, wisdom, and maybe even understanding. 

When a person gains intelligence, (s-)he infuses it with their past experiences until eventually it all evolves into knowledge. 

With knowledge comes insight and eventually wisdom. Insight is an immediate benefit realized once a person has knowledge. Wisdom comes from the acceptance of a teacher returning back to a student, and then sharing their knowledge with multiple perspectives as frames of reference to the knowledge in question. The panoptic purview is the preview paving a path of the wisdom achiever. 

Wisdom achiever is a particularly dangerous destination on a quest to heal others. With the convincing self-approval of accomplishment comes the risk of complacency and failure to enter zen mind.

Now comes the tricky part. What pain lingers back there long ago? It will never leave, and we all have the same issue at the core of the cause and effect chain of events into adulthood, which of course leads to the acceptance of pain. 

Removing the pain with a mind filled with wisdom releases the core energy blocking our central meridians from erupting up into a free-flowing mind state. This state is akin to the nature of zen, though not exactly. Zen cannot be explained. Zen cannot be put into words, because it defies all our current scientific beliefs. 

Release the block and recycle the chi energy inside the spinal column and into the brain stem. Chi energy can flow no other way. When our limbs and body respond to the flow of chi is not to be confused with where the chi cycles. Core energy can only be found inside the spine. Releasing pain is the goal of meditation. 

This is an optional answer to how you can remove pharmaceuticals from your pharmacy life. However, there are other ways. This particular way may require some dedication. Other options are of course less effective. 

102 Headline Capitalization (English)

Home >> Grammar Style Guide >> Headline Caps

Understanding Headline Capitalization

For headline capitalization, the first letter of each word in a phrase or expression is capitalized, much like the headlines in newspapers, which is where the term originated. In other words, we capitalize the first letter of each word in a phrase that is treated with headline capitalization, or headline caps for short.
This Is Headline Capitalization.

Camel Case

Similarly to headline caps is camel case capitalization. In camel case, the first letter of every word in a phrase or sentence is also capitalized as well, but the spaces between the words are removed. This style became popular among computer programmers who needed descriptive titles that were easy to read but not permitted to have any spaces. Replacing spaces with underscores became a tedious process as more and more names and titles were added to a project, so camel case was the solution.
ThisIsCamelCaseCapitalization.

Uses of Headline Capitalization

Headline capitalization is used, in standard practices, for titles of newspaper articles, titles of publications, titles of chapters, section headers, and proper names. However, authors may choose to treat words with headline caps at their own discretion.

Guest posting by Dizghuye Ovadhere

Rated: PG - Papoose Fiction - Rated: PG

Mohegun Sun; I'm troubled series by Dizzy Ovadhere. 

So how did I get here? Well first let's establish where exactly here is, which you may be wondering unless you already found something else more entertaining than the childish shenanigans of a hell-damned Jewish girl with a will more powerful than the curses forced upon her as changes, however superficial, declare the victor before time can attest to whom it shows favor as the winner.

Here, here where I once washed away sin after sin in the wastelands of wayfarers destined to begin a new ending to their own tales of yesteryear and once had been; here where metallic coins and paper measuring units disappear as drunken youthfulness emerges in a blissful ambiance of sugar-coated breezes infused with a temporal sustenance; here at a casino enjoying a bag of pretzel bites with some cheddar cheese sauce after having been denied the right to gamble a quarter at the quarter slots or a dollar at the dollar slots or any other form of payment unworthy of the hourly wage dispensed for the multiple paper shuffling teams charged with the accounting of payables and receivables. Why deny my try to rejoice at a small victory that brings a tear to my lover's eye as his coin and bill return to his pocket, unwelcomed, unwanted, and unnecessary.


With no hair on my body except where it doesn't belong anyway, the rudeness and arrogance of the minimum wager explaining the minimum waging of fives and up, received with the same contempt used upon its delivery. They only take five dollar bills or higher, even at the penny slots. So that's five hundred games at a penny a piece, a guaranteed day of pennies endlessly streaming forward and reverse while artificial oxygenation invigorates the scandal behind the wasting away of a five dollar bill where pennies and nickels once shuffled to a beat.

I'm not here to gamble; I'm here because when you find out you have cancer and only a few weeks to live, you start taking day expeditions on the daily just far enough to return to the hospital where hope swims in nurse's veins as they withhold the horrifying truths you couldn't possibly register regardless of the impact on your future endeavors. There's tears, for sure, but after the first round, their not yours anymore, not unless the treatment's sides of effects affects the pain indicators your brain reluctantly reads aloud regardless of the audience available for public scrutiny. When I trained with the dark lord, learning the wushu style was a side effect of the wutang style he was intentionally teaching me. So yeah, I know wushu kungfu by accident; and wutang, yeah, I know that too, no accident. The lessons stopped when It became clear in training I no longer required any direction from an instructor, but that wasn't clear to me for months afterwards. Even when I did realize I had elevated to a level beyond the master teaching me, I still yearned for his guidance and wisdom.

He refused, and still refuses.

Even now as I face death head on with a force of will so strong no cycle of treatment can deny or reject or shake a stick at without catching an eye from a sweet little Jewish kid with a hook that thrives to a beat and drives home any point I may fancy on that particular occasion. And on the subject of beating, that beating doesn't stop until I sense an alarm that I've gone too far, and even then, a momentary evaluation of potential consequences legal or otherwise may render my victim in for an evening of the beating of a lifetime. I can defend against any current style known in the world of Kung fu except for one, my own, but luckily I'm the only one that knows it.

Those that once mocked my amateur techniques now compare my feats to those of legendary proportion, and by no small portion, unless the very denial adds fuel to my fire. I'm my own worst enemy, for better or worse, and that which keeps me alive, that for which I strive, that for which I remain deprived, is and shall remain that which destroys me from the inside.
So here I am. A disciplined student of my lord, a master in my own right, feared or respected or some dangerous combination of the two. It doesn't matter if you don't believe, aren't scared, or just want to test the water, I'll mess up your night with a bite so vicious in so many different forms, a combination of endless styles, you'll stay your craves as the pain betrays your sense of physical touch as the point of contact grows, the throbbing steadies and levels out at an emergency worthy of an electric push cart to wheel what's left of the corpse who once dared to challenge the deadly Jewish kid with a heart once of gold but now just drenched in the fuels of Hell's ashes. Yes, hate to break the news to you, but someone so little CAN hit that hard with a punch so venomous, tremendous in power from a short-fused Jewish hammer, what's left of the rebellion ends quicker than the smell can. Nigaa, it's simple math, ya just ain't man enough to take on another blast of my power, so enjoy bowing endlessly from the pain planted deep with a single left thrusted deep within your bowels for you to keep.
Tomorrow, should your misfortune lead you back to me, you'll cower, but today you stood a test and lived to tell the tale of the day a goblin planted a seed in your belly with a power packed punch from a pretty small hammer named CL.
So where is here really then? Here is already dead but still alive on this earth, the little sissy girl who would have went running to the nearest slot machine melted away as a cloaking layer vanishes to reveal the Goliath hiding underneath, all powerful creature, more wisdom than sense, now comes with a dollar and change and even less interest in fortune and fame.

Hob v Gob (Hidden Beginning)

Welcome to Goblin's Hidden Game. In this puzzle, you have to decode the hidden meaning of the words spoken with a thick accent that makes it sound like other words were spoken instead. Click the links (...) at the end of the coded sentences to play. Scroll down to the bottom to see if you guessed right on any given puzzle set. The answers appear in the story after each play. My responses to Hob are hints at what he was trying to say. The best part is after you finish the puzzle, you can start over, and they'll still be just as difficult to solve. Difficulty ratings are provided. Even I can't figure them all out, and I'm the one who wrote them, so hopefully you'll enjoy the challenge...

Goblin's Grammar ^help

"Juan's supper knit, I'm dare! Wassup? Bee gain hand?..." he says.^L1
"Right? Beginning... go on..." I answer.
"Hand edge; jostle happy! inn satay Miss now..." he continues.^L2
"Okay? Right now?" I respond.
"Aye ham Hob! Hi yam he ear..." he states.^L3
"Oh, hey, Hob," I interrupt.
"Tube repair; hue has yore. Guy, down the sad! Van chewer?..." he continues. ^L3
"Sounds exciting, I love traveling..." I add.
"Hero, summer owl, stomach thasse..." he begins explaining. ^L4
"I see, rules, of course..." I interrupt with a clear hesitation.
"Hunk hum? Four table. Asp Oz civil...." he jokes. ^L5
I chuckle a little to indicate my stress is relieved at his failed attempt at humor.
"Foe roar. Forest hemp. Rest chin...." he finishes. ^L3
I smile and wait to see what he says next after agreeing, "they are the most important."
"Froze strollers..." he declares. ^L4
"Oh, you meant first...again..." I accidentally slip out while he ignores the interruption.
"Tear? Ride do ave, oh Ed, Danny, rule else..." he insists. ^L6
"Okay?" I say.
"Foe? Razzle on! Gas posse, Bill?..." he jokingly asserts. ^L5
"Ah that's funny," I laugh along.
"Sicken drool, sis!..." he continues. ^L2
"Another?" I ask comically.
"Reap, Peter, who'll won; has knee, ditto?..." he states quite seriously. ^L4
I chuckle again at his humorous antics.
"Ink reason: tart! Aim: hunt Val, you?..." he finishes his statement. ^L7
I smile, then nod in agreement and approval.

Samba, Crowned^{** L3}

"Walk entomb high home ball beg in hangs..." he begins.^L2
"Thanks," I respond.
"Angry things Farrah hum thou apple ah net pull you topee ah..." he says.^L4
"And greetings to you," I chime in.
"Hazzard handle red decide..." he announces quite vocally.^L9
"By who?" I wonder.
"My name is Hob, Hoblin, but some people call me Hob Hobland, never Lan Hob Hobland though; that would be weird," he says without any accent interfering in my understanding him.
"That is weird! I'm Goblin," I reply.
"High anchor hint lee a wasted dying..." he begins explaining until I interrupt.^L7
"I'm a student too," I interrupt.
"Med dictation Honda mount tinsel mice cool cyst eight..." he continues, but I interrupt yet again.^L5
"A state?" I wonder out loud.
"Aspen diva did hinder, hinted tout..." he continues.^L4
"Oh really?" I ask confusingly.
"Tough armor stewed ants off mile at my store lane..." he finishes.^L6
"I've heard of him," I acknowledge.
"Ah numb ma eye plan it..." he begins.^L1
"You mean here?" I ask pointlessly.
"Dare his ah sis them..." he continues.^L3
"Is there?" I chime in.
A flaw Samuel hard tumor shallow unearth..." he states.^L3
"Marshall, you say?" I sarcastically inject into his otherwise boring monologue.
"Own lease it is in scanning do act of leash ooh..." he continues.^L6
"They do do they?" I ask palindromically.
"Itch otters a man sister peer ink oared..." he says with his accent even heavier.^L8
"Otters?" I accidentally slip in as a jab on his accent.
"Freak rhymes they are resting with nest pull lands totes taffy..." he concludes, tempting me to ask him to repeat himself on account of how heavy his accent covered up his expression, and I think he just called me a freak.^L10
"That was a bit of a stretch," I admit openly.
"Henny bow deacon beer has Ted foreign Ethan gin diss leg alls hissed him..." Hob responds.^L7
"Though, Hob..." I try to interrupt.
"Though coin Vick shun sour less free quaint..." he finishes for me.^L2
"Sounds like a czarist state," I reply.
"Hinder is czar his shoe didn't affirm hover some hun swear all awe your kin bees hubs tattoo'd four win a pair ring, ink art..." Hob says.^L8
"I'm listening," I reply, suddenly able to hear his words much clearer.
"The laws aim to assign responsibility fairly and administer justice wisely in a state governed by martial laws," he explains.
"Is there a downside?" I ask.
"On the downside, this martial law-like effect on the legal system has made the streets and public areas more hazardous as even common law-abiding citizens engage in verbal battles that quickly escalate, sometimes out of control, and with no set policing agency or squads to control outbreaks of public destruction, it is left in the hands of each citizen on what martial arts training they will learn in order to travel safely throughout the kingdom," he answers.
"What about those without kung fu skills?" I ask.
"Those without kung fu skills are the victims of the skilled bullies that often wander the streets seeking their next victim to harass, hurt, or steal their belongings. Without martial arts, martial law would be left in the hands of the few citizens lucky enough to have saved antique weapons known as rifles. But most young citizens spend their time outside of their academic classrooms inside the martial arts classroom, sharpening their counterattacks and peaceful assaults," he explains.
"How do I learn that?" I ask.
"I am Master Hoblin to my students, the kung fu and zen master as well as your narrator into the origins of the great battle that is about to take place at the tournament on the other side of the known universe," he answers confusingly.
"What battle?" I ask, hoping to clarify.
"Well, the battle relates to a feud started when food was too sparse to spare, which became the motivating force. Even birds began to shrink in numbers as flocks flew farther from farms to forage for food and avoid foul feuds. With resources dwindling, martial law began to rear its violent side as the Utopian society quickly succumbed to its inability to evolve with the changing patterns," Hob explains.
"You said narrate though?" I recall.
"As your navigator, not narrator, but then also your guide through this fantasy-infused voyage to the tournament, I want to offer some background on the beginnings of the story of how I and Zen Chen were first introduced, even though that's a separate story when we were studying Shaolin sports after school sessions ended ...and on Sundays. For now, it'll be better to discuss how the two of us, almost enemies before graduating their academics and parting ways to learn trades, came to end up so close to each other again despite a vast kingdom separating our interests and businesses so that we would never intertwine again," he explains.
"Okay, so you're separated? So what?" I ask.
"But fate had a different direction for our paths are crossing once again," he responds.
"Ah, that explains that..." I joke.
"Zen Chen is an elderly man, heavy-set and generally in good spirits whenever he gets a chance at the privilege of quiet reflection," Hob informs me.
"I thought you were the same age?" I ask.

The Studios

"My meditation studio and my martial arts studio are divided into two separate facilities, each with their own separate entrance, both within one large building that divides the studios with solid concrete walls between the two open spaces," Hob advises me.
"So do I choose?" I ask.
"Behind one door, you'll find one path that leads in a certain direction. Behind the other door, you'll find another path, that leads in a different direction," Hob advises.
"Sooo.... yes?" I ask, followed by a nervous laugh.
"The paths will eventually interweave, intertwine, and be infused with other paths, but this where you start," Hob explains.
"Ah, interesting," I admit.
"The entrance on the left is for students who want to study in my school, Master Hoblin's academy, where students learned the ancient Shaolin secrets of the healing arts. My original studio is right on the outskirts of the Dark Market nearest the castle, so the king can keep me nearby should he need counseling on matters concerning the politics that involve my home planet, Hobland. Master Hoblin's Training Academy, the door on the left, teaches the great arts of Zen meditation and Taoist inner alchemy," Hob informs me.
"And the door with a big G on it?" I ask.
"The entrance on the right is for students who studied under the great Goblin school's styles, including the ancient Wutang secrets of counterattacks, something you might consider since you were named Goblin as well. One of the teachers, the Master Goblin, has passed on a great many lessons to students that will be shared with you if you choose the door marked G. Goblin is no joke, and studying under him takes a sheer force of will to overcome all the hardships that are endured along the way. But succeed, and you earn the right to stand among the ranks of the finest mental warriors to ever take arms in verbal battles," Hob explains.
"Do I have to pick only one?" I ask.
 "That would be wisest," Hob insists.

Choose a door

"Which door would you enter through first? The meditation studio's entrance or the martial arts studio's entrance?" Hob asks.
"I'm not sure," I ask.
"Be honest with yourself and choose the door that really interests you personally," Master Hob advises my young mind, eager to become the next great jedi mind warrior.
"My mom wants me to study meditation under Hoblin," I admit.
"Do not worry about which answer is correct or what someone else wants you to select," Hob remarks, "the important thing is that you find it interesting, so that you will learn, otherwise, without a proper education in something you will retain, you will have nothing."
"I already have nothing," I state, "that's why I think I should study how to win battles, so I can be rich like the other winners of the Goblin Cup."
"There is no reason to feel envy or jealousy for the path you are not meant to follow," Hob advises.
"But don't I have a duty to..." I begin saying until I am interrupted.
"We each have a duty to be true to ourselves and know that whichever path you have ahead of you is the path you are meant to follow." Hob tries to offer some comforting words.
"Then how do I know which path now that I feel uncertain?" I ask.
"Whichever door you first imagined yourself walking through is the choice you made with your heart," Hob explains.
"This decision will affect who I will turn out to be. But I'm not sure who I want to become? What if I turn out to hate the one I choose?" I ask, explaining my hesitation.
"It is the ability to know yourself truly that is a gift nobody can take away. Always follow your instincts and never let the words of others convince you to go against what you feel in your heart," Hob offers, "you already know your path, don't you?"
"I think I know," I state.
"Then I await your decision."
Hob waits.

("Choose a door!" Papoose barks an order at you.)

("Or you can just pick a mystery door and maybe find something else you find more interesting?" Jess throws an idea your way.)

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